This is one problem every one faces. Inability to concentrate may stem from any of the following reasons, the reasons being mentioned at random, not in the priority order.
Fear of the Results
Subject not interesting
Mind distracted by other activities
Focus shifted by love affair/infatuation
Not serious about one’s life time goals
Too many conflicts in mind
Home atmosphere not conducive for studies
Emotionally disturbed
Negativity induced by the company you keep
Too much of pampering
The list is not exhaustive.
a) Majority of the students suffer from fear of the results, emotional disturbance and distractions by love affairs/infatuations. In some cases, the subject may not be interesting or difficult to study. This is only a mental block, which can be over come.
b) Emotional disturbance may be caused by unresolved conflicts in mind or by other people’s behaviour towards us or our goals.
c) The company you keep may influence your behaviour. This happens at all ages but especially, more visible in the growing up years.
While there is no cure all solutions, some borad steps can be taken.
Dont try hard to concentrate because the harder u try, greater willbe distraction. for that follow the following steps. Adopting a proper study technique is very vital. (for details, send e mail to author for Study Techniques).You fix up a time for studies - for about one and half hours duration first.Then, sit there. Work for about 45 minutes. Then, change the subject.If youu were working out, then, study. if you were studying, then, workout. Change like that.
Initially, after about 30 minutes you lose concentration and mind wanderstowards other unwanted thoughts..AT THAT TIME, REMEMBER, YOU SHOULD NOT GET UP FROM YOUR SEAT.
No matter how strong the urge is, DONT GET UP FROM THE SEAT. Tell yourmind, ok, i will not study now, but wont get up either. Just sit theretill that one and half hour time schedule is up. Dont keep on thetable any thing other study materials.And do deep breathing for two minutes. your focus comes back.Initially, your focus refuses to come back.But if you assert mentally that you wont get up, then, mind accepts yourdecision and starts focusing on studies.
Emotional disturbance needs external help. Consult some one whom you can trust and confide. Solution will come. Deep breathing for about 15 to 20 minutes daily helps overcome emotional disturbance. Identifying the underlying cause for emotional disturbance is the first step you have to take and then, to seek solutions.
Influence of the people whose company we keep works on us on several occasions. Negativity, irresponsibility, devil may care attitude, disobedience, rudeness, vulgarity and the like may be transferred to you from your close associates. Periodical review of your own behaviour towards your own life time goals will help. If solution is not forthcoming, do consult a trustworthy counselor.
The essence is REALISING your life time goals by harnessing the resources available to you – your dreams, your intelligence and your time.
Tuesday, September 30, 2008
PROCRASTINATION
Oscar Wilde said, “Never do a thing today, which you can put off to tomorrow” Many of us very religiously follow this advise, even in those cases where we should not postpone it for tomorrow. Postpone we will, until reaching the crunch situation, where you will face the writing on the wall – do it now or next minute your neck will be dethroned from your shoulders’.
Why do we do this? Even when we know we should not be putting off any more, we do. Why?
There are a few reasons that persuade you from DOING.
You don’t like to do it.
You are afraid the result may not be palatable.
You are afraid your weakness will be exposed.
You are afraid of the reaction.
You are not deeply desirous of doing it.
You are not sufficiently in Love, with yourself.
You are not serious about your life time goals.
You are allowing temporary distractions to rule you.
You have unfulfilled desires ruling your mind.
YOU ARE A FAKE!
I will do it. I still have time, I will do it. Why do you remind me so many times, you think I am not responsible? I know what I should do, you don’t have to tell me. If you tell me once again, I wont do it at all, do what you want. Etc. are some of the reactions or responses you come with whenever you are advised DO IT NOW!
If you are really keen to avoid procrastinating, then, you continue to read it. But if you believe, “what the hell, I will do things only when I want, who cares what happens if I procrastinate”, then, please POSTPONE reading this further!
There was a newly wed girl who went to her mother-in-laws place. The mother in law said, “in our home, we do not buy rice from the shop. Paddy comes to us, we pound it at home to make rice, and then, cook. It is your job to pound the rice every day”. The daughter in law was stupefied. She had never even heard of such things as pounding of rice, but now she had to do it!
Cursing, every day she would toil hard at pounding the rice and was too tired for anything. A neighbour observed this and advised the girl of a plan which would help her overcome her distress. When the girl implemented the plan, her face was beaming with pleasure and the work was also getting done quickly. The mother in law was puzzled. She could not understand what her neighbour advised the daughter in law. Curious, she went and inquired. The neighbour said, “well, all I told her was if you don’t like what you are doing, then, the work never ends and you get tired. You must find some thing in it that you like and finish off the job, SO THAT YOU DON’T HAVE TO WORRY ABOUT IT. When you are pounding rice, if you look at the labour, you hate it and the work never gets completed. Instead, you assume, whenever you are pounding the rice, IT IS NOT RICE YOU ARE POUNDING BUT YOU ARE POUNDING YOUR MOTHER IN LAW. It makes you happy and when you are happy, the work gets over sooner than you think”
When there is action, there is bound to be result, some result. You may like the result, you may not like the result. But being afraid of getting the result you may not like, not doing at all is not the right approach. YOU MUST BE PREPARED TO FACE THE CONSEQUENSES. First of all, list out all the possible results of your action. Then, prepare for action plan for each of the results. Then, whatever the result, you have an action plan in place. Implement it. This will help you overcome your fear of the unpalatable result.
Remember, when you are afraid of exposing your ignorance, YOU ARE TRULY IGNORANT. A wise person is never shy of learning. As such, he/she is never afraid of the people finding out about his/her weakness or ignorance. Covering up the weakness is a negative quality. Overcoming it is the positive approach you need. People appreciate those who achieve in spite of the weaknesses but don’t trust those who hide their weaknesses.
Reactions or responses are the biggest forces behind procrastination. Reactions could be of three types, Favourable, Unfavourable, Neither! If the reaction is favourable, you have nothing to worry about. If it is unfavourable, then, you have to find out reasons for this result and address those reasons. So, before you act, identify the reasons which may cause the unfavourable reaction and address those reasons first. Then, act. The secret is in the scout motto- be prepared!
If the reaction is neither favourable nor favourable, it could mean that the other person is undecided on the issue, it could mean the other person does not care. It could also mean the other person is afraid to come with response, being unable to judge your reaction to it! You may have to do a little probing and help the other person come with the response.
Some people pronounce big dreams, but are never serious about realizing them. They talk of becoming big, achieving big but their actions never support this dream. It is mainly because they do not have adequate faith in themselves. They have a serious conflict in mind. While their mind creates big dreams, their heart says they are unrealizable dreams. This conflict erodes their self confidence. But they don’t like to accept the fact that they cannot achieve anything in life. So, they make public pronouncements of becoming some thing big but never back up their statements by their actions. Resolving the conflict is the solution to this problem. For this, external help may be needed. May be, they should have a heart to heart to discussion with a trustworthy friend, a guide, a teacher, a counselor, with any one whom they trust.
Fall in Love, with yourself. This is the advise I give every one. Recently in one of the books I was reading, the author says, “unless you love yourself, you cannot love others”. Falling in love with Self is the key to Confidence. When you identify all those qualities in you, which according to you are good, your confidence level grows. If you focus on those qualities you don’t have, those weak areas you don’t like, then, your confidence is stunted. Therefore, do prepare a list of all those qualities for which you like yourself(never mind, others opinion, only your opinion should count here), and go through the list every day, you will start loving yourself more and more. This increases your confidence level.
Lack of seriousness towards life time goal is a consequence, more often than not, of the lack of confidence in you. If you start loving your self more and more, as your confidence grows, you will become more serious about your life time goals. When you love your self, you cannot help but value your life time goals. Valuing your goals is extremely important. They are your goals, after all!
There is a Sanskrit saying, “Lethargy is an enemy in the garb of a friend, Zeal is a friend treated as an enemy”. Comfort zone lulls us into complacency and we prefer to become complacent. May be, you need a shock treatment!
Years ago, one Winter afternoon, I was lying down on a mat, reading a book. It was cold and I was shivering, but was feeling too lazy to get up to go to the room for fetching a blanket. Suddenly, I came across a quotation in the book, which shocked me. It said, “Some of are so lazy, we prefer to lie and shiver, than, get up to fetch a blanket”. The shock treatment woke me up to action! Distractions are such negative forces that lull you into complacency.
Distractions could be anything. Watching a trash programme on TV, gossiping, idling out on the streets, romantic affairs without sufficient understanding or strength, boozing, drug addictions, sleeping and sleeping and sleeping…. Any thing that takes your focus away from your duties. Duties, to yourself.
Making priorities of your actions for each day is a necessity. Every day, before you go to bed, prepare the list of actions you would like to carry out next day. And before that, review your actions with reference to the list prepared previous day. You would have done some, not done some. Round off those you have completed, LEAVE THE UNDONE AS THEY ARE. Don’t carry forward it to next day. They should remain in the same list on the same date where you wrote the first time.
Every day, you review this dairy from day one. Then, you when you see such old entries again and again, you will receive YOUR SHOCK TREATMENT some day. Then, you will do it.
While prioritizing, you have to ask just one question – whether it helps you realize your life time dreams. In preparing the action plan, remember to provide for two things without fail – relaxation and wastage of time. Once you start working on this, in less than three months, you will find yourself happier, day by day!
Distractions are many times caused by unfulfilled desires. When the atmosphere around you is unpalatable, when your own performance is not satisfactory, when you feel the problems are too many for your tender shoulders to bear, when you come under severe stress, when you allow yourself to be influenced by others, when you are persuaded by some one to do some thing other than what you had planned for your self, you tend to suffer from distraction. If you are mentally strong enough, you will overcome distraction. Else, you end up as a slave to distractions or addictions!
Alcohol is never a remedy to overcome stress. On the other hand, it only increases stress. Unfortunately, lure of the drink is too high to stay away. Many reasons are attributed for alcoholism, most of the times, the reasons are cited are extraneous but never the real one – you are mentally weak, so weak that knowing the harms of it, you still accepted to become its slave! I have visited the bars many times, have been forced by many including my boss, have been persuaded by so many to join them, yet I have been strong enough to say NO, a loud NO to all these machinations! I am not addicted to any habits that may ruin my health, may damage my financial health or that may distract me from my life time goal. I have the mental strength to overcome any stress without taking recourse to any such escapist measures.
Yes, they are escapist measures. While alcohol and drugs may help you forget your worries, that is only a temporary measure. You may forget everything when you are under its influence but when the influence wears out, the stress hits back.
Any habit which forces you to back to it again and again, ruining the health of your body and purse, stifling your creativity, damaging your dreams is to be avoided. Indulge in healthy pursuits like reading a good book, viewing a good film,
Sexual desires are one such force which can destroy any resistance. Age also cannot fight this power. There is time and place for everything in life. We have to have restraint, indulge in healthy pursuits and a strong will power.
A strong will power can help you overcome any unfulfilled desire which affects your focus on your life time goals.
If your actions do not support your words, then, you are FAKE! Yes indeed. What you say is macro structure of your life. In the micro structure your actions must support your statements. Your behaviour, your actions, your inactions, your responses- all either support your views are expose your hollowness. When you are hollow, people will not trust you. People not trusting is not that important. But you should be honest – to yourself atleast!
Procrastination is not a totally negative force. It is required. Sometimes. But the paradox is, it is not properly analysed by people where postponement is required and where it is not required. In the student life, when they are not even standing on their feet, when they have yet to become self dependent, there must be procrastination in selecting life partner, while there should be no procrastination in the studies. But the ground situation is reverse!
This is just one example of negative application of DO IT NOW theory!
Review your life. Throw out unwanted thoughts. They are garbage. Don’t procrastinate when it is the question of your life time goal. Where you need not take a life time decision, don’t take it. There, you follow the advise given by Oscar wilde.
Never put off a thing to tomorrow, which you can do the day after. But what you have to do today, that, you do it today.
That is,
If you want to become some thing in life. If you want the people to wish, when you die, “too bad, he/she should not have died”
Why do we do this? Even when we know we should not be putting off any more, we do. Why?
There are a few reasons that persuade you from DOING.
You don’t like to do it.
You are afraid the result may not be palatable.
You are afraid your weakness will be exposed.
You are afraid of the reaction.
You are not deeply desirous of doing it.
You are not sufficiently in Love, with yourself.
You are not serious about your life time goals.
You are allowing temporary distractions to rule you.
You have unfulfilled desires ruling your mind.
YOU ARE A FAKE!
I will do it. I still have time, I will do it. Why do you remind me so many times, you think I am not responsible? I know what I should do, you don’t have to tell me. If you tell me once again, I wont do it at all, do what you want. Etc. are some of the reactions or responses you come with whenever you are advised DO IT NOW!
If you are really keen to avoid procrastinating, then, you continue to read it. But if you believe, “what the hell, I will do things only when I want, who cares what happens if I procrastinate”, then, please POSTPONE reading this further!
There was a newly wed girl who went to her mother-in-laws place. The mother in law said, “in our home, we do not buy rice from the shop. Paddy comes to us, we pound it at home to make rice, and then, cook. It is your job to pound the rice every day”. The daughter in law was stupefied. She had never even heard of such things as pounding of rice, but now she had to do it!
Cursing, every day she would toil hard at pounding the rice and was too tired for anything. A neighbour observed this and advised the girl of a plan which would help her overcome her distress. When the girl implemented the plan, her face was beaming with pleasure and the work was also getting done quickly. The mother in law was puzzled. She could not understand what her neighbour advised the daughter in law. Curious, she went and inquired. The neighbour said, “well, all I told her was if you don’t like what you are doing, then, the work never ends and you get tired. You must find some thing in it that you like and finish off the job, SO THAT YOU DON’T HAVE TO WORRY ABOUT IT. When you are pounding rice, if you look at the labour, you hate it and the work never gets completed. Instead, you assume, whenever you are pounding the rice, IT IS NOT RICE YOU ARE POUNDING BUT YOU ARE POUNDING YOUR MOTHER IN LAW. It makes you happy and when you are happy, the work gets over sooner than you think”
When there is action, there is bound to be result, some result. You may like the result, you may not like the result. But being afraid of getting the result you may not like, not doing at all is not the right approach. YOU MUST BE PREPARED TO FACE THE CONSEQUENSES. First of all, list out all the possible results of your action. Then, prepare for action plan for each of the results. Then, whatever the result, you have an action plan in place. Implement it. This will help you overcome your fear of the unpalatable result.
Remember, when you are afraid of exposing your ignorance, YOU ARE TRULY IGNORANT. A wise person is never shy of learning. As such, he/she is never afraid of the people finding out about his/her weakness or ignorance. Covering up the weakness is a negative quality. Overcoming it is the positive approach you need. People appreciate those who achieve in spite of the weaknesses but don’t trust those who hide their weaknesses.
Reactions or responses are the biggest forces behind procrastination. Reactions could be of three types, Favourable, Unfavourable, Neither! If the reaction is favourable, you have nothing to worry about. If it is unfavourable, then, you have to find out reasons for this result and address those reasons. So, before you act, identify the reasons which may cause the unfavourable reaction and address those reasons first. Then, act. The secret is in the scout motto- be prepared!
If the reaction is neither favourable nor favourable, it could mean that the other person is undecided on the issue, it could mean the other person does not care. It could also mean the other person is afraid to come with response, being unable to judge your reaction to it! You may have to do a little probing and help the other person come with the response.
Some people pronounce big dreams, but are never serious about realizing them. They talk of becoming big, achieving big but their actions never support this dream. It is mainly because they do not have adequate faith in themselves. They have a serious conflict in mind. While their mind creates big dreams, their heart says they are unrealizable dreams. This conflict erodes their self confidence. But they don’t like to accept the fact that they cannot achieve anything in life. So, they make public pronouncements of becoming some thing big but never back up their statements by their actions. Resolving the conflict is the solution to this problem. For this, external help may be needed. May be, they should have a heart to heart to discussion with a trustworthy friend, a guide, a teacher, a counselor, with any one whom they trust.
Fall in Love, with yourself. This is the advise I give every one. Recently in one of the books I was reading, the author says, “unless you love yourself, you cannot love others”. Falling in love with Self is the key to Confidence. When you identify all those qualities in you, which according to you are good, your confidence level grows. If you focus on those qualities you don’t have, those weak areas you don’t like, then, your confidence is stunted. Therefore, do prepare a list of all those qualities for which you like yourself(never mind, others opinion, only your opinion should count here), and go through the list every day, you will start loving yourself more and more. This increases your confidence level.
Lack of seriousness towards life time goal is a consequence, more often than not, of the lack of confidence in you. If you start loving your self more and more, as your confidence grows, you will become more serious about your life time goals. When you love your self, you cannot help but value your life time goals. Valuing your goals is extremely important. They are your goals, after all!
There is a Sanskrit saying, “Lethargy is an enemy in the garb of a friend, Zeal is a friend treated as an enemy”. Comfort zone lulls us into complacency and we prefer to become complacent. May be, you need a shock treatment!
Years ago, one Winter afternoon, I was lying down on a mat, reading a book. It was cold and I was shivering, but was feeling too lazy to get up to go to the room for fetching a blanket. Suddenly, I came across a quotation in the book, which shocked me. It said, “Some of are so lazy, we prefer to lie and shiver, than, get up to fetch a blanket”. The shock treatment woke me up to action! Distractions are such negative forces that lull you into complacency.
Distractions could be anything. Watching a trash programme on TV, gossiping, idling out on the streets, romantic affairs without sufficient understanding or strength, boozing, drug addictions, sleeping and sleeping and sleeping…. Any thing that takes your focus away from your duties. Duties, to yourself.
Making priorities of your actions for each day is a necessity. Every day, before you go to bed, prepare the list of actions you would like to carry out next day. And before that, review your actions with reference to the list prepared previous day. You would have done some, not done some. Round off those you have completed, LEAVE THE UNDONE AS THEY ARE. Don’t carry forward it to next day. They should remain in the same list on the same date where you wrote the first time.
Every day, you review this dairy from day one. Then, you when you see such old entries again and again, you will receive YOUR SHOCK TREATMENT some day. Then, you will do it.
While prioritizing, you have to ask just one question – whether it helps you realize your life time dreams. In preparing the action plan, remember to provide for two things without fail – relaxation and wastage of time. Once you start working on this, in less than three months, you will find yourself happier, day by day!
Distractions are many times caused by unfulfilled desires. When the atmosphere around you is unpalatable, when your own performance is not satisfactory, when you feel the problems are too many for your tender shoulders to bear, when you come under severe stress, when you allow yourself to be influenced by others, when you are persuaded by some one to do some thing other than what you had planned for your self, you tend to suffer from distraction. If you are mentally strong enough, you will overcome distraction. Else, you end up as a slave to distractions or addictions!
Alcohol is never a remedy to overcome stress. On the other hand, it only increases stress. Unfortunately, lure of the drink is too high to stay away. Many reasons are attributed for alcoholism, most of the times, the reasons are cited are extraneous but never the real one – you are mentally weak, so weak that knowing the harms of it, you still accepted to become its slave! I have visited the bars many times, have been forced by many including my boss, have been persuaded by so many to join them, yet I have been strong enough to say NO, a loud NO to all these machinations! I am not addicted to any habits that may ruin my health, may damage my financial health or that may distract me from my life time goal. I have the mental strength to overcome any stress without taking recourse to any such escapist measures.
Yes, they are escapist measures. While alcohol and drugs may help you forget your worries, that is only a temporary measure. You may forget everything when you are under its influence but when the influence wears out, the stress hits back.
Any habit which forces you to back to it again and again, ruining the health of your body and purse, stifling your creativity, damaging your dreams is to be avoided. Indulge in healthy pursuits like reading a good book, viewing a good film,
Sexual desires are one such force which can destroy any resistance. Age also cannot fight this power. There is time and place for everything in life. We have to have restraint, indulge in healthy pursuits and a strong will power.
A strong will power can help you overcome any unfulfilled desire which affects your focus on your life time goals.
If your actions do not support your words, then, you are FAKE! Yes indeed. What you say is macro structure of your life. In the micro structure your actions must support your statements. Your behaviour, your actions, your inactions, your responses- all either support your views are expose your hollowness. When you are hollow, people will not trust you. People not trusting is not that important. But you should be honest – to yourself atleast!
Procrastination is not a totally negative force. It is required. Sometimes. But the paradox is, it is not properly analysed by people where postponement is required and where it is not required. In the student life, when they are not even standing on their feet, when they have yet to become self dependent, there must be procrastination in selecting life partner, while there should be no procrastination in the studies. But the ground situation is reverse!
This is just one example of negative application of DO IT NOW theory!
Review your life. Throw out unwanted thoughts. They are garbage. Don’t procrastinate when it is the question of your life time goal. Where you need not take a life time decision, don’t take it. There, you follow the advise given by Oscar wilde.
Never put off a thing to tomorrow, which you can do the day after. But what you have to do today, that, you do it today.
That is,
If you want to become some thing in life. If you want the people to wish, when you die, “too bad, he/she should not have died”
BECOMING MENTALLY STRONG
Every one wants to be strong mentally. But, not all can. Some people can take bold decisions, some cannot. Some people can do any thing they want to, but some cannot.
Various factors affect our personality that contributes for such situations.
Believe me, any one can become mentally strong, any can take bold decisions, any one can do whatever they want to. All have the capacity. Very few use their capacity to the optimum level.
The first step is to ask yourself, what is it that you can do well, really well. List out all those activities which you can carry out quite well, doest not matter how trivial it is. This helps you gain confidence in yourself.
The second step is to build a relationship between these activities and the goal you have chosen for your life. How you can use these activities to realize your goal, you will have to work out. Some times, there may be no connection what so ever, but be creative, think different, you will discover a relationship between them.
The third step is to start working on that line. Once you start working on your goal, you can go on improvising and you will be amazed to discover the unknown levels of talent you have, stored right inside you! The more latent talents you discover, the more your confidence grows!
Our external behaviour is a mirror to the conflicts that go on in our mind. The difference between dream and reality, between what you want and what you have, between the right and wrong creates conflict in our mind. This conflict affects our external behaviour. Resolution of the conflict is absolutely vital if we have to progress positively towards our goal realization.
If you are postponing doing things, if you become irritable at every body and every thing, if you have to depend more and more on lies to cover up your actions, if you become more and secretive in your relationships, if your responses tend to be rude and vulgar, then, there is a sign of deep conflict going on in your mind.
Introspect, meditate, ponder and work out to over come the conflict. In case you are unable to, seek outside help. And don’t hesitate to use the help.
In order to be successful in life, we have to be mentally strong. There are three dimensions you have to attend to. First of all, you should be very clear as to what you want to do and how you are going to do it. To a small extent, you do have to consider opinions of other people. And to a still smaller extent, leave some thing for luck to intervene.
When you are very clear what you want to do and how to go about it, chances are you may get a doubt as to whether you are not doing anything wrong. In such circumstances, ask yourself three questions, (a) whether by doing what you are doing, you are taking one step nearer to realization of your dreams, (b) by doing what you are doing, whether you are harming any one and (c) by doing what you are doing, whether you are cheating any one, including yourself!.
If the answer to (a) is YES and to (b) and (c) is NO,
Then, GO AHEAD, no matter who says what
Various factors affect our personality that contributes for such situations.
Believe me, any one can become mentally strong, any can take bold decisions, any one can do whatever they want to. All have the capacity. Very few use their capacity to the optimum level.
The first step is to ask yourself, what is it that you can do well, really well. List out all those activities which you can carry out quite well, doest not matter how trivial it is. This helps you gain confidence in yourself.
The second step is to build a relationship between these activities and the goal you have chosen for your life. How you can use these activities to realize your goal, you will have to work out. Some times, there may be no connection what so ever, but be creative, think different, you will discover a relationship between them.
The third step is to start working on that line. Once you start working on your goal, you can go on improvising and you will be amazed to discover the unknown levels of talent you have, stored right inside you! The more latent talents you discover, the more your confidence grows!
Our external behaviour is a mirror to the conflicts that go on in our mind. The difference between dream and reality, between what you want and what you have, between the right and wrong creates conflict in our mind. This conflict affects our external behaviour. Resolution of the conflict is absolutely vital if we have to progress positively towards our goal realization.
If you are postponing doing things, if you become irritable at every body and every thing, if you have to depend more and more on lies to cover up your actions, if you become more and secretive in your relationships, if your responses tend to be rude and vulgar, then, there is a sign of deep conflict going on in your mind.
Introspect, meditate, ponder and work out to over come the conflict. In case you are unable to, seek outside help. And don’t hesitate to use the help.
In order to be successful in life, we have to be mentally strong. There are three dimensions you have to attend to. First of all, you should be very clear as to what you want to do and how you are going to do it. To a small extent, you do have to consider opinions of other people. And to a still smaller extent, leave some thing for luck to intervene.
When you are very clear what you want to do and how to go about it, chances are you may get a doubt as to whether you are not doing anything wrong. In such circumstances, ask yourself three questions, (a) whether by doing what you are doing, you are taking one step nearer to realization of your dreams, (b) by doing what you are doing, whether you are harming any one and (c) by doing what you are doing, whether you are cheating any one, including yourself!.
If the answer to (a) is YES and to (b) and (c) is NO,
Then, GO AHEAD, no matter who says what
7 Commandments for Success in Campus Interviews
Campus Interview … Hmm… is what one looks forward to
with enthusiasm , fear and excitement towards the beginning of the final year.For some it's a make or break, atleast that's the way it's looked at and for some it's a matter of pride. The constant thought in one's mind is - what shall make this click! What is it that the interviewer is looking in me!Here's what we look for when we visit the various campuses. This by no means is an exhaustive list but is a good indication of the expectations and the mean s to meet these. We present you the 7-Commandments.
1. Know Thyself!
Not everyone is good in each and every field. Each one of us has our fortes and weaknesses too. But that's not a stumbling block! What we look for are people who know their area of specialization and are an expert in it. Therefore, it pays to be a master in some fields if not the jack of all.The most common mistakes many make is to profess knowing a field of which they know little about. Remember that huge and bulky resumes are as tough to read as they are to make. So, identify your skill set, and keep your resumes simple and straight. Know your limits and polish on your strengths.
2. Testing What You Know and NOT What You Don't.
Many interviewers may ask the student the subjects that she/he wishes to be interviewed upon. Eureka !! Here's a golden opportunity. Answer this wisely! Never end up choosing a difficult subject that you know only little about, rather choose the one you are most confident of.
3. Rack Your Brain - Analyze
The interview is not just limited to testing your knowledge base, but we are also interested in knowing your ability to apply it. Often questions that need to be solved then and there are asked. Now keep in mind - the right answer is not the only thing being looked at. The focus area is also the way in which you attack the problem i.e. approach to problem solving is equally important.So, remember to put your thinking caps on!
4. Ask for Help!
Murphy chooses to strike at the appropriate time! Inspite of the fact that you may know something very well, it might just slip your mind. After all, heavy preparation does takes its toll. Who better to ask for help than the poser of the question (of course, don't try this too often!)!Remember the interviewer is not there to grill the confidence out of you, but to bring forth the best in. Just in case you are stuck, ask for a hint. Things might just click. Also, stay alert for clues.
5. What are your biggest accomplishments
You may like to begin your reply with: "Although I feel my biggest achievements are still ahead of me, I am proud of my involvement with……I made my contribution as part of that team and learnt a lot in the process".It will be a good idea to close your answer with also specifying what attributes and circumstances made you succeed.
6. Be Calm, have Clear Verbal and Sound Non-Verbal Communication
Calmness shows emotional maturity. True, being calm in a job interview is a difficult proposition, but then that is where it is required! Calmness does not imply being unenthusiastic or apathetic during the interview, but knowing that you are nervous and not letting it come in the way. A clear verbal communication implies clarity of the thought process.One should also watch out for the impressions made in non-verbal communication. Body language and facial expressions can assist you in establishing a good rapport with the interviewer. Pauses, silences and gestures may all indicate what you mean, understand, or would like to emphasize.
7. Two-Way Exchange Process
The interview process is a two-way exchange of information. Make sure you also understand about the company, its activities, job requirements. The company is in need for good candidates and you need a good company to launch your career.Interview is an opportunity to present yourself and your skills to your best advantage. Make sure you make the most out of it. And YOU are the best one to do it!!
Good Luck!
with enthusiasm , fear and excitement towards the beginning of the final year.For some it's a make or break, atleast that's the way it's looked at and for some it's a matter of pride. The constant thought in one's mind is - what shall make this click! What is it that the interviewer is looking in me!Here's what we look for when we visit the various campuses. This by no means is an exhaustive list but is a good indication of the expectations and the mean s to meet these. We present you the 7-Commandments.
1. Know Thyself!
Not everyone is good in each and every field. Each one of us has our fortes and weaknesses too. But that's not a stumbling block! What we look for are people who know their area of specialization and are an expert in it. Therefore, it pays to be a master in some fields if not the jack of all.The most common mistakes many make is to profess knowing a field of which they know little about. Remember that huge and bulky resumes are as tough to read as they are to make. So, identify your skill set, and keep your resumes simple and straight. Know your limits and polish on your strengths.
2. Testing What You Know and NOT What You Don't.
Many interviewers may ask the student the subjects that she/he wishes to be interviewed upon. Eureka !! Here's a golden opportunity. Answer this wisely! Never end up choosing a difficult subject that you know only little about, rather choose the one you are most confident of.
3. Rack Your Brain - Analyze
The interview is not just limited to testing your knowledge base, but we are also interested in knowing your ability to apply it. Often questions that need to be solved then and there are asked. Now keep in mind - the right answer is not the only thing being looked at. The focus area is also the way in which you attack the problem i.e. approach to problem solving is equally important.So, remember to put your thinking caps on!
4. Ask for Help!
Murphy chooses to strike at the appropriate time! Inspite of the fact that you may know something very well, it might just slip your mind. After all, heavy preparation does takes its toll. Who better to ask for help than the poser of the question (of course, don't try this too often!)!Remember the interviewer is not there to grill the confidence out of you, but to bring forth the best in. Just in case you are stuck, ask for a hint. Things might just click. Also, stay alert for clues.
5. What are your biggest accomplishments
You may like to begin your reply with: "Although I feel my biggest achievements are still ahead of me, I am proud of my involvement with……I made my contribution as part of that team and learnt a lot in the process".It will be a good idea to close your answer with also specifying what attributes and circumstances made you succeed.
6. Be Calm, have Clear Verbal and Sound Non-Verbal Communication
Calmness shows emotional maturity. True, being calm in a job interview is a difficult proposition, but then that is where it is required! Calmness does not imply being unenthusiastic or apathetic during the interview, but knowing that you are nervous and not letting it come in the way. A clear verbal communication implies clarity of the thought process.One should also watch out for the impressions made in non-verbal communication. Body language and facial expressions can assist you in establishing a good rapport with the interviewer. Pauses, silences and gestures may all indicate what you mean, understand, or would like to emphasize.
7. Two-Way Exchange Process
The interview process is a two-way exchange of information. Make sure you also understand about the company, its activities, job requirements. The company is in need for good candidates and you need a good company to launch your career.Interview is an opportunity to present yourself and your skills to your best advantage. Make sure you make the most out of it. And YOU are the best one to do it!!
Good Luck!
Saturday, August 30, 2008
IP ADDRESS
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification (logical address) that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are often displayed in more human-readable notations, such as 192.168.100.1 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6). The role of the IP address has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."
Originally, an IP address was defined as a 32-bit number and this system, now named Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of the address space, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, had to be developed.IPv6 is now being deployed across the world; in many places it coexists with the old standard and is transmitted over the same hardware and network links.
The Internet Protocol also is responsible for routing data packets between networks, and IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork. (In CIDR notation, the number of bits used for the subnet follows the IP address. E.g. 192.168.100.1/16) An IP address can be private, for use on a LAN, or public, for use on the Internet or other WAN.
In early specifications, IP addresses were intended to be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device.However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and address space needed to be conserved (IPv4 address exhaustion). RFC 1918 specifies private address spaces that may be reused by anyone; today, such private networks typically access the Internet through Network Address Translation (NAT). In addition, technologies such as anycast addressing have been developed to allow multiple hosts at the same IP address but in different portions of the Internet to service requests by network clients.
The global IP address space is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA works in cooperation with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.
Static and dynamic IP addresses
When a computer is manually configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address.
Method of assignment
Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either randomly (by the computer itself, as in Zeroconf), or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer, and never to assign that IP address to another computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured in one place, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a different way.
In the absence of both an administrator (to assign a static IP address) and a DHCP server, the operating system may assign itself an IP address using state-less autoconfiguration methods, such as Zeroconf. These IP addresses are known as link-local addresses. For IPv4, link-local addresses are in the 169.254.0.0/16 address range.
In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/64 subnet.
Uses of dynamic addressing
Dynamic IP Addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assigning dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.
Uses of static addressing
Static addressing is essential in some infrastructure situations, such as finding the Domain Name Service directory host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network administration.
Originally, an IP address was defined as a 32-bit number and this system, now named Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of the address space, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, had to be developed.IPv6 is now being deployed across the world; in many places it coexists with the old standard and is transmitted over the same hardware and network links.
The Internet Protocol also is responsible for routing data packets between networks, and IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork. (In CIDR notation, the number of bits used for the subnet follows the IP address. E.g. 192.168.100.1/16) An IP address can be private, for use on a LAN, or public, for use on the Internet or other WAN.
In early specifications, IP addresses were intended to be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device.However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and address space needed to be conserved (IPv4 address exhaustion). RFC 1918 specifies private address spaces that may be reused by anyone; today, such private networks typically access the Internet through Network Address Translation (NAT). In addition, technologies such as anycast addressing have been developed to allow multiple hosts at the same IP address but in different portions of the Internet to service requests by network clients.
The global IP address space is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA works in cooperation with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.
Static and dynamic IP addresses
When a computer is manually configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address.
Method of assignment
Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either randomly (by the computer itself, as in Zeroconf), or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer, and never to assign that IP address to another computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured in one place, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a different way.
In the absence of both an administrator (to assign a static IP address) and a DHCP server, the operating system may assign itself an IP address using state-less autoconfiguration methods, such as Zeroconf. These IP addresses are known as link-local addresses. For IPv4, link-local addresses are in the 169.254.0.0/16 address range.
In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/64 subnet.
Uses of dynamic addressing
Dynamic IP Addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assigning dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.
Uses of static addressing
Static addressing is essential in some infrastructure situations, such as finding the Domain Name Service directory host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network administration.
Virtual reality
Virtual reality (VR) is a technology which allows a user to interact with a computer-simulated environment, be it a real or imagined one. Most current virtual reality environments are primarily visual experiences, displayed either on a computer screen or through special or stereoscopic displays, but some simulations include additional sensory information, such as sound through speakers or headphones. Some advanced, haptic systems now include tactile information, generally known as force feedback, in medical and gaming applications. Users can interact with a virtual environment or a virtual artifact (VA) either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse, or through multimodal devices such as a wired glove, the Polhemus boom arm, and omnidirectional treadmill. The simulated environment can be similar to the real world, for example, simulations for pilot or combat training, or it can differ significantly from reality, as in VR games. In practice, it is currently very difficult to create a high-fidelity virtual reality experience, due largely to technical limitations on processing power, image resolution and communication bandwidth. However, those limitations are expected to eventually be overcome as processor, imaging and data communication technologies become more powerful and cost-effective over time.
Virtual Reality is often used to describe a wide variety of applications, commonly associated with its immersive, highly visual, 3D environments. The development of CAD software, graphics hardware acceleration, head mounted displays, database gloves and miniaturization have helped popularize the notion. In the book The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality, Michael Heim identifies seven different concepts of Virtual Reality: simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, full-body immersion, and network communication. The definition still has a certain futuristic romanticism attached. People often identify VR with Head Mounted Displays and Data Suits.
Future
It is unclear exactly where the future of virtual reality is heading. In the short run, the graphics displayed in the HMD will soon reach a point of near realism. The audio capabilities will move into a new realm of three dimensional sound. This refers to the addition of sound channels both above and below the individual or a Holophony approach.
Within existing technological limits, sight and sound are the two senses which best lend themselves to high quality simulation. There are however attempts being currently made to simulate smell. The purpose of current research is linked to a project aimed at treating Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in veterans by exposing them to combat simulations, complete with smells. Although it is often seen in the context of entertainment by popular culture, this illustrates the point that the future of VR is very much tied into therapeutic, training, and engineering demands. Given that fact, a full sensory immersion beyond basic tactile feedback, sight, sound, and smell is unlikely to be a goal in the industry. It is worth mentioning that simulating smells, while it can be done very realistically, requires costly research and development to make each odor, and the machine itself is expensive and specialized, using capsules tailor made for it. Thus far basic, and very strong smells such as burning rubber, cordite, gasoline fumes, and so-forth have been made. Not content to serve only its customers' eyes and ears, Japan's NTT Communications, of Tokyo, has just finished testing an Internet-connected odor-delivery system to be used by retailers and restaurants to attract customers. Whether NTT has sniffed out a new commercial opportunity or this attempt to engage our olfactory sense will fail the smell test is too early to judge. But as new trials and applications are tried out and more data gathered, Hamada says he is sure the technology “will take communications to a new level in content richness, compared to today’s communications, which only offers images and sounds.
Virtual Reality is often used to describe a wide variety of applications, commonly associated with its immersive, highly visual, 3D environments. The development of CAD software, graphics hardware acceleration, head mounted displays, database gloves and miniaturization have helped popularize the notion. In the book The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality, Michael Heim identifies seven different concepts of Virtual Reality: simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, full-body immersion, and network communication. The definition still has a certain futuristic romanticism attached. People often identify VR with Head Mounted Displays and Data Suits.
Future
It is unclear exactly where the future of virtual reality is heading. In the short run, the graphics displayed in the HMD will soon reach a point of near realism. The audio capabilities will move into a new realm of three dimensional sound. This refers to the addition of sound channels both above and below the individual or a Holophony approach.
Within existing technological limits, sight and sound are the two senses which best lend themselves to high quality simulation. There are however attempts being currently made to simulate smell. The purpose of current research is linked to a project aimed at treating Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in veterans by exposing them to combat simulations, complete with smells. Although it is often seen in the context of entertainment by popular culture, this illustrates the point that the future of VR is very much tied into therapeutic, training, and engineering demands. Given that fact, a full sensory immersion beyond basic tactile feedback, sight, sound, and smell is unlikely to be a goal in the industry. It is worth mentioning that simulating smells, while it can be done very realistically, requires costly research and development to make each odor, and the machine itself is expensive and specialized, using capsules tailor made for it. Thus far basic, and very strong smells such as burning rubber, cordite, gasoline fumes, and so-forth have been made. Not content to serve only its customers' eyes and ears, Japan's NTT Communications, of Tokyo, has just finished testing an Internet-connected odor-delivery system to be used by retailers and restaurants to attract customers. Whether NTT has sniffed out a new commercial opportunity or this attempt to engage our olfactory sense will fail the smell test is too early to judge. But as new trials and applications are tried out and more data gathered, Hamada says he is sure the technology “will take communications to a new level in content richness, compared to today’s communications, which only offers images and sounds.
Blu-ray Disc
Blu-ray Disc (also known as Blu-ray or BD) is an optical disc storage media format. Its main uses are high-definition video and data storage. The disc has the same dimensions as a standard DVD or CD.
The name Blu-ray Disc is derived from the blue laser (violet coloured) used to read and write this type of disc. Because of its shorter wavelength (405 nm), substantially more data can be stored on a Blu-ray Disc than on the DVD format, which uses a red (650 nm) laser. A dual layer Blu-ray Disc can store 50 GB, almost six times the capacity of a double-dual layer DVD (or more than 10 times if single-layer).
During the high definition optical disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. On February 19, 2008, Toshiba — the main company supporting HD DVD — announced it would no longer develop, manufacture, and market HD DVD players and recorders,leading almost all other HD DVD companies to follow suit, effectively ending the format war.
Blu-ray Disc was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion picture production. As of August 27, 2008 more than 780 Blu-ray Disc titles have been released in the United States and more than 480 Blu-ray Disc titles have been released in Japan.By the end of 2008, there is expected to be a total of 1192 Blu-ray Disc titles released.
Competition from HD DVD
The DVD Forum (which was chaired by Toshiba) was deeply split over whether to develop the more expensive blue laser technology or not. In March 2002, the forum voted to approve a proposal endorsed by Warner Bros. and other motion picture studios that involved compressing HD content onto dual-layer DVD-9 discs.In spite of this decision, however, the DVD Forum's Steering Committee announced in April that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition solution. In August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard Advanced Optical Disc.It was finally adopted by the DVD Forum and renamed HD DVD the next yearafter being voted down twice by Blu-ray Disc Association members, prompting the U.S. Department of Justice to make preliminary investigations into the situation.HD DVD had a head start in the high definition video market and Blu-ray Disc sales were slow at first. The first Blu-ray Disc player was perceived as expensive and buggy, and there were few titles available.This changed when PlayStation 3 launched, since every PS3 unit also functioned as a Blu-ray Disc player. At CES 2007 Warner proposed Total Hi Def which was a hybrid disc containing Blu-ray on one side and HD DVD on the other but it was never released. By January 2007, Blu-ray discs had outsold HD DVDs,and during the first three quarters of 2007, BD outsold HD DVDs by about two to one. Finally, by February 2008, Toshiba announced it was pulling its support for the HD DVD format, leaving Blu-ray as the victor in the video wars.
Some analysts believe that Sony's PlayStation 3 video game console played an important role in the format war, believing it acted as a catalyst for Blu-ray Disc, as the PlayStation 3 used a Blu-ray Disc drive as its primary information storage medium.They also credited Sony's more thorough and influential marketing campaign.More recently Twentieth Century Fox have cited Blu-ray Disc's adoption of the BD+ anti-copying system as the reason they supported Blu-ray Disc over HD DVD.
The name Blu-ray Disc is derived from the blue laser (violet coloured) used to read and write this type of disc. Because of its shorter wavelength (405 nm), substantially more data can be stored on a Blu-ray Disc than on the DVD format, which uses a red (650 nm) laser. A dual layer Blu-ray Disc can store 50 GB, almost six times the capacity of a double-dual layer DVD (or more than 10 times if single-layer).
During the high definition optical disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. On February 19, 2008, Toshiba — the main company supporting HD DVD — announced it would no longer develop, manufacture, and market HD DVD players and recorders,leading almost all other HD DVD companies to follow suit, effectively ending the format war.
Blu-ray Disc was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion picture production. As of August 27, 2008 more than 780 Blu-ray Disc titles have been released in the United States and more than 480 Blu-ray Disc titles have been released in Japan.By the end of 2008, there is expected to be a total of 1192 Blu-ray Disc titles released.
Competition from HD DVD
The DVD Forum (which was chaired by Toshiba) was deeply split over whether to develop the more expensive blue laser technology or not. In March 2002, the forum voted to approve a proposal endorsed by Warner Bros. and other motion picture studios that involved compressing HD content onto dual-layer DVD-9 discs.In spite of this decision, however, the DVD Forum's Steering Committee announced in April that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition solution. In August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard Advanced Optical Disc.It was finally adopted by the DVD Forum and renamed HD DVD the next yearafter being voted down twice by Blu-ray Disc Association members, prompting the U.S. Department of Justice to make preliminary investigations into the situation.HD DVD had a head start in the high definition video market and Blu-ray Disc sales were slow at first. The first Blu-ray Disc player was perceived as expensive and buggy, and there were few titles available.This changed when PlayStation 3 launched, since every PS3 unit also functioned as a Blu-ray Disc player. At CES 2007 Warner proposed Total Hi Def which was a hybrid disc containing Blu-ray on one side and HD DVD on the other but it was never released. By January 2007, Blu-ray discs had outsold HD DVDs,and during the first three quarters of 2007, BD outsold HD DVDs by about two to one. Finally, by February 2008, Toshiba announced it was pulling its support for the HD DVD format, leaving Blu-ray as the victor in the video wars.
Some analysts believe that Sony's PlayStation 3 video game console played an important role in the format war, believing it acted as a catalyst for Blu-ray Disc, as the PlayStation 3 used a Blu-ray Disc drive as its primary information storage medium.They also credited Sony's more thorough and influential marketing campaign.More recently Twentieth Century Fox have cited Blu-ray Disc's adoption of the BD+ anti-copying system as the reason they supported Blu-ray Disc over HD DVD.
CD-ROM
CD-ROM (an abbreviation of "Compact Disc read-only memory") is a pre-pressed Compact Disc that contains data accessible but not writable by a computer. While the Compact Disc format was originally designed for music storage and playback, the 1985 yellow book standard developed by Sony and Philips adapted the format to hold any form of binary data.
CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including games and multimedia applications, though any data can be stored (up to the capacity limit of a disc). Some CDs hold both computer data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD player, whilst data (such as software or digital video) is only usable on a computer (such as PC CD-ROMs). These are called Enhanced CDs.
Although many people use lowercase letters in this acronym, proper presentation is in all capital letters with a hyphen between CD and ROM. It was also suggested by some, especially soon after the technology was first released, that CD-ROM was an acronym for "Compact Disc read-only-media", or that it was a more "correct" definition. This was not the intention of the original team who developed the CD-ROM, and common acceptance of the "memory" definition is now almost universal. This is probably in no small part due to the widespread use of other "ROM" acronyms such as Flash-ROMs and EEPROMs where "memory" is usually the correct term.
Media
CD-ROM discs are identical in appearance to audio CDs, and data is stored and retrieved in a very similar manner (only differing from audio CDs in the standards used to store the data). Discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic, with a thin layer of aluminium to make a reflective surface. The most common size of CD-ROM disc is 120 mm in diameter, though the smaller Mini CD standard with an 80 mm diameter, as well as numerous non-standard sizes and shapes (e.g. business card-sized media) are also available. Data is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations. A laser is shown onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands ("pits", with the gaps between them referred to as "lands"). Because the depth of the pits is approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the wavelength of the laser light used to read the disc, the reflected beam's phase is shifted in relation to the incoming beam, causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam's intensity. This pattern of changing intensity of the reflected beam is converted into binary data.
Standard
There are several formats used for data stored on compact discs, known collectively as the Rainbow Books. These include the original Red Book standards for CD audio, White Book and Yellow Book CD-ROM. The ECMA-130 standard, which gives a thorough description of the physics and physical layer of the CD-ROM, inclusive of Cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding CIRC and Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation, can be downloaded from [1].
ISO 9660 defines the standard file system of a CD-ROM, although it is due to be replaced by ISO 13490. UDF format is used on user-writeable CD-R and CD-RW discs that are intended to be extended or overwritten. The bootable CD specification, to make a CD emulate a hard disk or floppy, is called El Torito. Apparently named this because its design originated in an El Torito restaurant in Irvine, California.
CD-ROM format
A CD-ROM sector contains 2352 bytes, divided into 98 24-byte frames. The CD-ROM is, in essence, a data disk, which cannot rely on error concealment, and therefore requires a higher reliability of the retrieved data. In order to achieve improved error correction and detection, a CD-ROM has a third layer of Reed-Solomon error correction.A Mode-1 CD-ROM, which has the full three layers of error correction data, contains a net 2048 bytes of the available 2352 per sector. In a Mode-2 CD-ROM, which is mostly used for video files, there are 2336 user-available bytes per sector. The net byte rate of a Mode-1 CD-ROM, based on comparison to CDDA audio standards, is 44.1k/s×4B×2048/2352 = 153.6 kB/s. The playing time is 74 minutes, or 4440 seconds, so that the net capacity of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 682 MB.
A 1x speed CD drive reads 75 consecutive sectors per second.
CD sector contents
A standard 74 min CD contains 333,000 blocks or sectors.
Each sector is 2352 bytes, and contains 2048 bytes of PC (MODE1) Data, 2336 bytes of PSX/VCD (MODE2) Data, or 2352 bytes of AUDIO.
The difference between sector size and data content are the Headers info and the Error Correction Codes, that are big for Data (high precision required), small for VCD (standard for video) and none for audio.
If extracting the disc in RAW format (standard for creating images) always extract 2352 bytes per sector, not 2048/2336/2352 bytes depending on data type (basically, extracting the whole sector). This fact has two main consequences:
Recording data CDs at very high speed (40x) can be done without losing information. However, as audio CDs do not contain a third layer of error correction codes, recording these at high speed may result in more unrecoverable errors or 'clicks' in the audio.
On a 74 minute CD, one can fit larger images using RAW mode, up to 333,000 × 2352 = 783,216,000 bytes (747~ MiB). This is the upper limit for RAW images created on a 74 min or 650~ MiB Red Book CD. The 14.8% increase is due to the discarding of error correction data
The sync pattern for Mode 1 CDs is 0xff00ffffffffffffffff00ff[citation needed]
Please note that an image size is always a multiple of 2352 bytes (the size of a block) when extracting in RAW mode.
CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including games and multimedia applications, though any data can be stored (up to the capacity limit of a disc). Some CDs hold both computer data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD player, whilst data (such as software or digital video) is only usable on a computer (such as PC CD-ROMs). These are called Enhanced CDs.
Although many people use lowercase letters in this acronym, proper presentation is in all capital letters with a hyphen between CD and ROM. It was also suggested by some, especially soon after the technology was first released, that CD-ROM was an acronym for "Compact Disc read-only-media", or that it was a more "correct" definition. This was not the intention of the original team who developed the CD-ROM, and common acceptance of the "memory" definition is now almost universal. This is probably in no small part due to the widespread use of other "ROM" acronyms such as Flash-ROMs and EEPROMs where "memory" is usually the correct term.
Media
CD-ROM discs are identical in appearance to audio CDs, and data is stored and retrieved in a very similar manner (only differing from audio CDs in the standards used to store the data). Discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic, with a thin layer of aluminium to make a reflective surface. The most common size of CD-ROM disc is 120 mm in diameter, though the smaller Mini CD standard with an 80 mm diameter, as well as numerous non-standard sizes and shapes (e.g. business card-sized media) are also available. Data is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations. A laser is shown onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands ("pits", with the gaps between them referred to as "lands"). Because the depth of the pits is approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the wavelength of the laser light used to read the disc, the reflected beam's phase is shifted in relation to the incoming beam, causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam's intensity. This pattern of changing intensity of the reflected beam is converted into binary data.
Standard
There are several formats used for data stored on compact discs, known collectively as the Rainbow Books. These include the original Red Book standards for CD audio, White Book and Yellow Book CD-ROM. The ECMA-130 standard, which gives a thorough description of the physics and physical layer of the CD-ROM, inclusive of Cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding CIRC and Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation, can be downloaded from [1].
ISO 9660 defines the standard file system of a CD-ROM, although it is due to be replaced by ISO 13490. UDF format is used on user-writeable CD-R and CD-RW discs that are intended to be extended or overwritten. The bootable CD specification, to make a CD emulate a hard disk or floppy, is called El Torito. Apparently named this because its design originated in an El Torito restaurant in Irvine, California.
CD-ROM format
A CD-ROM sector contains 2352 bytes, divided into 98 24-byte frames. The CD-ROM is, in essence, a data disk, which cannot rely on error concealment, and therefore requires a higher reliability of the retrieved data. In order to achieve improved error correction and detection, a CD-ROM has a third layer of Reed-Solomon error correction.A Mode-1 CD-ROM, which has the full three layers of error correction data, contains a net 2048 bytes of the available 2352 per sector. In a Mode-2 CD-ROM, which is mostly used for video files, there are 2336 user-available bytes per sector. The net byte rate of a Mode-1 CD-ROM, based on comparison to CDDA audio standards, is 44.1k/s×4B×2048/2352 = 153.6 kB/s. The playing time is 74 minutes, or 4440 seconds, so that the net capacity of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 682 MB.
A 1x speed CD drive reads 75 consecutive sectors per second.
CD sector contents
A standard 74 min CD contains 333,000 blocks or sectors.
Each sector is 2352 bytes, and contains 2048 bytes of PC (MODE1) Data, 2336 bytes of PSX/VCD (MODE2) Data, or 2352 bytes of AUDIO.
The difference between sector size and data content are the Headers info and the Error Correction Codes, that are big for Data (high precision required), small for VCD (standard for video) and none for audio.
If extracting the disc in RAW format (standard for creating images) always extract 2352 bytes per sector, not 2048/2336/2352 bytes depending on data type (basically, extracting the whole sector). This fact has two main consequences:
Recording data CDs at very high speed (40x) can be done without losing information. However, as audio CDs do not contain a third layer of error correction codes, recording these at high speed may result in more unrecoverable errors or 'clicks' in the audio.
On a 74 minute CD, one can fit larger images using RAW mode, up to 333,000 × 2352 = 783,216,000 bytes (747~ MiB). This is the upper limit for RAW images created on a 74 min or 650~ MiB Red Book CD. The 14.8% increase is due to the discarding of error correction data
The sync pattern for Mode 1 CDs is 0xff00ffffffffffffffff00ff[citation needed]
Please note that an image size is always a multiple of 2352 bytes (the size of a block) when extracting in RAW mode.
Random access memory
Random access memory (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a type of computer data storage. Today it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order, i.e. at random. The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data.
This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is mostly associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. However, many other types of memory are RAM as well (i.e. Random Access Memory), including most types of ROM and a kind of flash memory called NOR-Flash.
Types of RAM
Modern types of writable RAM generally store a bit of data in either the state of a flip-flop, as in SRAM (static RAM), or as a charge in a capacitor (or transistor gate), as in DRAM (dynamic RAM), EPROM, EEPROM and Flash. Some types have circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults called memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. RAM of the read-only type, ROM, instead uses a metal mask to permanently enable/disable selected transistors, instead of storing a charge in them.
As both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, other forms of computer storage, such as disks and magnetic tapes, have been used as "permanent" storage in traditional computers. Many newer products instead rely on flash memory to maintain data between sessions of use: examples include PDAs, small music players, mobile phones, synthesizers, advanced calculators, industrial instrumentation and robotics, and many other types of products; even certain categories of personal computers, such as the OLPC XO-1, Asus Eee PC, and others, have begun replacing magnetic disk with so called flash drives (similar to fast memory cards equipped with an IDE or SATA interface).
There are two basic types of flash memory: the NOR type, which is capable of true random access, and the NAND type, which is not; the former is therefore often used in place of ROM, while the latter is used in most memory cards and solid-state drives, due to a lower price.
This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is mostly associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. However, many other types of memory are RAM as well (i.e. Random Access Memory), including most types of ROM and a kind of flash memory called NOR-Flash.
Types of RAM
Modern types of writable RAM generally store a bit of data in either the state of a flip-flop, as in SRAM (static RAM), or as a charge in a capacitor (or transistor gate), as in DRAM (dynamic RAM), EPROM, EEPROM and Flash. Some types have circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults called memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. RAM of the read-only type, ROM, instead uses a metal mask to permanently enable/disable selected transistors, instead of storing a charge in them.
As both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, other forms of computer storage, such as disks and magnetic tapes, have been used as "permanent" storage in traditional computers. Many newer products instead rely on flash memory to maintain data between sessions of use: examples include PDAs, small music players, mobile phones, synthesizers, advanced calculators, industrial instrumentation and robotics, and many other types of products; even certain categories of personal computers, such as the OLPC XO-1, Asus Eee PC, and others, have begun replacing magnetic disk with so called flash drives (similar to fast memory cards equipped with an IDE or SATA interface).
There are two basic types of flash memory: the NOR type, which is capable of true random access, and the NAND type, which is not; the former is therefore often used in place of ROM, while the latter is used in most memory cards and solid-state drives, due to a lower price.
MOTHERBOARD
* Motherboard - It is the "body" or mainframe of the computer, through which all other components interface.
Central processing unit (CPU) - Performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer.
Computer fan - Used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. Liquid cooling can also be used to cool a computer, though it focuses more on individual parts rather than the overall temperature inside the chassis.
'* Random Access Memory (RAM)' -It is also known as the physical memory of the computer. Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered-down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running. * Firmware is loaded from the Read only memory ROM run from the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or in newer systems Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) compliant
Internal Buses - Connections to various internal components.
PCI
PCI-E
USB
HyperTransport
CSI (expected in 2008)
AGP (being phased out)
VLB (outdated)
External Bus Controllers - used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses.
parallel port
serial port
USB
Firewire
SCSI (On Servers and older machines)
PS/2 (For mice and keyboards, being phased out and replaced by USB.)
ISA (outdated)
EISA (outdated)
MCA (outdated)
Central processing unit (CPU) - Performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer.
Computer fan - Used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. Liquid cooling can also be used to cool a computer, though it focuses more on individual parts rather than the overall temperature inside the chassis.
'* Random Access Memory (RAM)' -It is also known as the physical memory of the computer. Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered-down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running. * Firmware is loaded from the Read only memory ROM run from the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or in newer systems Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) compliant
Internal Buses - Connections to various internal components.
PCI
PCI-E
USB
HyperTransport
CSI (expected in 2008)
AGP (being phased out)
VLB (outdated)
External Bus Controllers - used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses.
parallel port
serial port
USB
Firewire
SCSI (On Servers and older machines)
PS/2 (For mice and keyboards, being phased out and replaced by USB.)
ISA (outdated)
EISA (outdated)
MCA (outdated)
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer, including its digital circuitry, as distinguished from the computer software that executes within the hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequently changed, in comparison with software and hardware data, which are "soft" in the sense that they are readily created, modified or erased on the computer. Firmware is a special type of software that rarely, if ever, needs to be changed and so is stored on hardware devices such as read-only memory (ROM) where it is not readily changed (and is, therefore, "firm" rather than just "soft").
Most computer hardware is not seen by normal users. It is in embedded systems in automobiles, microwave ovens, electrocardiograph machines, compact disc players, and other devices. Personal computers, the computer hardware familiar to most people, form only a small minority of computers (about 0.2% of all new computers produced in 2003).
Most computer hardware is not seen by normal users. It is in embedded systems in automobiles, microwave ovens, electrocardiograph machines, compact disc players, and other devices. Personal computers, the computer hardware familiar to most people, form only a small minority of computers (about 0.2% of all new computers produced in 2003).
Friday, July 25, 2008
Uses
Personal data transport
The most common use of flash drives is to transport and store personal files such as documents, pictures and videos. Individuals also store medical alert information on MedicTag flash drives for use in emergencies and for disaster preparation.
Secure storage of data, application and software files
With wide deployment(s) of flash drives being used in various environments (secured or otherwise), the issue of data and information security remains of the utmost importance. The use of biometrics and encryption is becoming the norm with the need for increased security for data; OTFE systems such as FreeOTFE and TrueCrypt are particularly useful in this regard, as they can transparently encrypt large amounts of data.
System administration
Flash drives are particularly popular among system and network administrators, who load them with configuration information and software used for system maintenance, troubleshooting, and recovery.
Computer repair
Flash drives enjoy notable success in the PC repair field as a means to transfer recovery and antivirus software to infected PCs, while allowing a portion of the host machine's data to be archived in case of emergency. As the drives have increased in storage space, they have also replaced the need to carry a number of CD ROMs and installers which were needed when reinstalling or updating a system.
Application carriers
Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the host computer without requiring installation. While any standalone application can be used this way, the U3 company, works with drive makers (parent company SanDisk as well as others) to deliver Windows applications from a flash drive custom-tuned for this purpose. U3 also provides a software framework for ISVs interested in their platform. Ceedo is an alternative product with the key difference that it does not require Windows applications to be modified in order for them to be carried and run on the drive.
The most common use of flash drives is to transport and store personal files such as documents, pictures and videos. Individuals also store medical alert information on MedicTag flash drives for use in emergencies and for disaster preparation.
Secure storage of data, application and software files
With wide deployment(s) of flash drives being used in various environments (secured or otherwise), the issue of data and information security remains of the utmost importance. The use of biometrics and encryption is becoming the norm with the need for increased security for data; OTFE systems such as FreeOTFE and TrueCrypt are particularly useful in this regard, as they can transparently encrypt large amounts of data.
System administration
Flash drives are particularly popular among system and network administrators, who load them with configuration information and software used for system maintenance, troubleshooting, and recovery.
Computer repair
Flash drives enjoy notable success in the PC repair field as a means to transfer recovery and antivirus software to infected PCs, while allowing a portion of the host machine's data to be archived in case of emergency. As the drives have increased in storage space, they have also replaced the need to carry a number of CD ROMs and installers which were needed when reinstalling or updating a system.
Application carriers
Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the host computer without requiring installation. While any standalone application can be used this way, the U3 company, works with drive makers (parent company SanDisk as well as others) to deliver Windows applications from a flash drive custom-tuned for this purpose. U3 also provides a software framework for ISVs interested in their platform. Ceedo is an alternative product with the key difference that it does not require Windows applications to be modified in order for them to be carried and run on the drive.
Technology
Flash memory is actually a combination of a number of older technologies, with the low cost, low power consumption and small size being made possible by recent advances in microprocessor technology. The memory storage is based on earlier EPROM and EEPROM technologies. These had very limited capacity, were very slow for both reading and writing, required complex high-voltage drive circuitry, and could only be re-written after erasing the entire contents of the chip.
Later EEPROMS were developed where the erasure region was broken up into smaller "fields" that could be erased individually without affecting the others. Altering the contents of a particular memory location involved first copying the entire field into an off-chip buffer memory, erasing the field, and then re-writing the data back into the same field, making the necessary alteration to the relevant memory location while doing so. This required considerable computer support, and PC-Based EEPROM flash memory systems often carried their own dedicated microprocessor system. Flash drives are more or less a miniaturized version of this.
The development of high-speed serial data interfaces such as USB for the first time made serially accessed storage memory systems viable, and the simultaneous development of small, high-speed, low-power microprocessor systems allowed this to be incorporated into extremely compact systems. Serial access also greatly reduced the number of electrical connections required for the memory chips, which has allowed the successful manufacture of multi-gigabyte capacities. (Every external electrical connection is a potential source of manufacturing failure, and with traditional manufacturing, a point is rapidly reached where the successful yield approaches zero).
Modern flash memory systems are accessed very much like hard disk drives, where the controller system has full control over where information is actually stored. The actual EEPROM writing and erasure processes are, however, still very similar to the earlier systems described above.
Many low-cost MP3 Players simply add extra software to a standard flash memory control microprocessor so it can also serve as a music playback decoder. Most of these players can also be used as a conventional flash drive.
Later EEPROMS were developed where the erasure region was broken up into smaller "fields" that could be erased individually without affecting the others. Altering the contents of a particular memory location involved first copying the entire field into an off-chip buffer memory, erasing the field, and then re-writing the data back into the same field, making the necessary alteration to the relevant memory location while doing so. This required considerable computer support, and PC-Based EEPROM flash memory systems often carried their own dedicated microprocessor system. Flash drives are more or less a miniaturized version of this.
The development of high-speed serial data interfaces such as USB for the first time made serially accessed storage memory systems viable, and the simultaneous development of small, high-speed, low-power microprocessor systems allowed this to be incorporated into extremely compact systems. Serial access also greatly reduced the number of electrical connections required for the memory chips, which has allowed the successful manufacture of multi-gigabyte capacities. (Every external electrical connection is a potential source of manufacturing failure, and with traditional manufacturing, a point is rapidly reached where the successful yield approaches zero).
Modern flash memory systems are accessed very much like hard disk drives, where the controller system has full control over where information is actually stored. The actual EEPROM writing and erasure processes are, however, still very similar to the earlier systems described above.
Many low-cost MP3 Players simply add extra software to a standard flash memory control microprocessor so it can also serve as a music playback decoder. Most of these players can also be used as a conventional flash drive.
USB flash drive
A USB flash drive is a NAND-type flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB (universal serial bus) connector. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much shorter than a floppy disk (1 to 4 inches or 2.5 to 10 cm), and weigh less than 2 ounces (60 g). Storage capacities typically range from 64 MB to 32 GB[1] with steady improvements in size and price per gigabyte. Some allow 1 million write or erase cycles and have 10-year data retention, connected by USB 1.1 or USB 2.0. USB Memory card readers are also available, whereby rather than being built-in, the memory is a removable flash memory card housed in what is otherwise a regular USB flash drive, as described below.
USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly the floppy disk. They are more compact, faster, hold much more data, have a more durable design, and are more reliable for lack of moving parts. Additionally, it has become increasingly common for computers to ship without floppy disk drives. USB ports, on the other hand, appear on almost every current mainstream PC and laptop. These types of drives use the USB mass storage standard, supported natively by modern operating systems such as Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other Unix-like systems. USB drives with USB 2.0 support can also be faster than an optical disc drive, while storing a larger amount of data in a much smaller space.
With nothing being mechanically driven in a flash drive, the name is something of a misnomer. It is called a "drive" because it appears to the computer operating system (and the user) in a manner identical to a mechanical disk drive, and is accessed in the same way.
A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board typically in a plastic or metal casing and more recently in rubber casings to increase their robustness. This makes the drive sturdy enough to be carried about in a pocket, for example as a key fob, or on a lanyard. Only the USB connector protrudes, and it is typically protected either by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing them to be connected directly to a port on a personal computer.
To access the data stored in a flash drive, the drive must be connected to a USB port through either a host controller built into a computer, a USB hub, or some other device designed to access the data, such as an mp3 player with a USB-in port. Flash drives are active only when plugged into a USB connection and draw all necessary power from the supply provided by that connection. Some flash drives, however, especially high-speed drives, may require more power than the limited amount provided by a bus-powered USB hub, such as those built into some computer keyboards or monitors. These drives will not work properly unless plugged directly into a host controller (i.e., the ports found on the computer itself) or a self-powered hub.
USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly the floppy disk. They are more compact, faster, hold much more data, have a more durable design, and are more reliable for lack of moving parts. Additionally, it has become increasingly common for computers to ship without floppy disk drives. USB ports, on the other hand, appear on almost every current mainstream PC and laptop. These types of drives use the USB mass storage standard, supported natively by modern operating systems such as Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other Unix-like systems. USB drives with USB 2.0 support can also be faster than an optical disc drive, while storing a larger amount of data in a much smaller space.
With nothing being mechanically driven in a flash drive, the name is something of a misnomer. It is called a "drive" because it appears to the computer operating system (and the user) in a manner identical to a mechanical disk drive, and is accessed in the same way.
A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board typically in a plastic or metal casing and more recently in rubber casings to increase their robustness. This makes the drive sturdy enough to be carried about in a pocket, for example as a key fob, or on a lanyard. Only the USB connector protrudes, and it is typically protected either by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing them to be connected directly to a port on a personal computer.
To access the data stored in a flash drive, the drive must be connected to a USB port through either a host controller built into a computer, a USB hub, or some other device designed to access the data, such as an mp3 player with a USB-in port. Flash drives are active only when plugged into a USB connection and draw all necessary power from the supply provided by that connection. Some flash drives, however, especially high-speed drives, may require more power than the limited amount provided by a bus-powered USB hub, such as those built into some computer keyboards or monitors. These drives will not work properly unless plugged directly into a host controller (i.e., the ports found on the computer itself) or a self-powered hub.
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